Evolution of agricultural paradigms: conceptual, technological, and sustainability perspectives from Agriculture 1.0 to 5.0

Agricultural production has served as a cornerstone of social and economic structures since the Neolithic Revolution, evolving through a series of transformative phases from Agriculture 1.0 to Agriculture 5.0. This review presents a comparative analysis of these evolutionary stages, drawing on existing literature to examine their conceptual and technological dimensions. Agriculture 1.0 was characterized by manual and animal labor, while Agriculture 2.0 marked the rise of mechanization and chemical inputs. The emergence of GPS, satellite imagery, field sensors farming defined Agriculture 3.0, followed by the digitalization of agriculture in Agriculture 4.0 through big data, artificial intelligence, and the Internet of Things (IoT). The current paradigm, Agriculture 5.0, introduces a normative framework that integrates human–machine–nature balance with sustainability and ethical principles.…