Reference Values for Macronutrients in Human Milk: the Mothers, Infants and Lactation Quality (MILQ) Study

This second article in the series establishing reference values (RVs) for nutrients in human milk describes RVs for protein, carbohydrate, fat, and energy. To establish RVs, the mothers, infants, and lactation quality (MILQ) and early-MILQ studies collected human milk samples throughout the first 8.5 mo of lactation in 1242 well-nourished women in Bangladesh, Brazil, Denmark, and The Gambia. Macronutrients were measured by near-infrared spectroscopy. Protein concentrations decreased from 12.4 g/L at 4-17 d to a 7.7-7.9 g/L plateau by 4-5 mo. Carbohydrate concentrations were stable throughout lactation, ranging from 68.2 to 70.1 g/L. Fat concentrations decreased from 37.0 g/L at 4-17 d to 31.2-32.8 g/L after 2-3 mo. Energy density mirrored fat trends, decreasing from 665 kcal/L at 4-17 d…