Glycine betaine in plant responses and tolerance to abiotic stresses

Abiotic stresses pose a significant challenge to sustainable crop production in our ever-changing global environment. These stresses have an impact on plant growth, development, and production through various mechanisms, including morpho-physiological, biochemical, and molecular changes, as well as interactions with secondary metabolites. Glycine betaine (GB) emerges as a critical compatible solute in plant, playing a key role in maintaining the morpho-physiological and biochemical processes within the plant. Plant species have different abilities to produce GB, the amount of GB accumulated in plants is closely connected to their capacity to withstand various types of abiotic stresses. Application of exogenous GB or genetic engineering-induced biosynthesis of GB has been demonstrated to enhance tolerance under abiotic stresses. Additionally, plants with accumulated GB show…